Messaging And Report Tag: media representation

The studies reviewed for this report paint a picture of a world in which black male lives and experience are distorted in public communications, in ways that lead to distorted understandings and attitudes towards them, and ultimately to serious obstacles to success and happiness in the real world. These patterns are critical for communicators to understand so that they know what they are up against.

Overall, the studies do not offer a great deal of specific guidance concerning exactly how to go about changing these patterns. They focus more on problems than solutions, and are more descriptive than prescriptive. It is clear that much more scholarship is needed on the ways in which communication can demonstrably help improve the situation for black males.

Nevertheless, taken along with the authors’ own research experience on a wide range of social issues, the studies considered here do suggest a number of ideas that communicators should keep in mind about how to proceed.

The most obvious is that communicators need to continue to work to create a fuller and more accurate portrayal of black males in the media — through education and external pressure targeted at media producers — as well as by working to embed more African Americans in all links in the media production chain, and by producing their own media reflecting best practices.

In principle, the latter effort is likely to help with all the factors that lead to distorted portrayals, as African-American media owners, producers, writers, and so forth are less likely to fall into patterns of neglect and distortion. But we caution that simply having more African Americans involved in content production is not likely to be a silver bullet solution, for reasons discussed in the section on deep challenges and dilemmas. For instance, while a black news producer might be better prepared to address neglect of certain topics, he or she may have no clear idea about the best narratives or language for making systemic forces more visible, or about how to avoid various “blame the victim” dynamics.

Beyond working towards more representative and “relatable” portrayals of black males, communicators must face challenges regarding what to say about the topic, in order to take the best advantage of communications opportunities ranging from web pages, to speeches, interviews, and community conversations.

Some evidence, such as Iyengar’s studies of the impact of thematic news stories, suggests that awareness of systematic patterns of bias against black males can have good results. For another example, see  Losen’s (2009) discussion of how the publication of significant high school graduation rate disparities between black males and others helped push national education policy in a constructive direction:

While internationally the denial of education to women is of primary concern, in the USA, black males are often the sub-group experiencing the greatest harm. …

[But a report on high school graduation rate disparities] attracted national attention … As public awareness grew … many other researchers began studying and reporting similar findings. Several politicians, including Obama, added improving graduation rates to their election campaign’s educational platform. Before election year in 2008, the Department of Education issued new regulations … [that] added accountability for schools and districts if minority or ethnic groups, students with disabilities, English learners or socio-economically disadvantaged youth failed to make adequate improvements in their rate of graduation. (Losen, 2009, p. 67)

But it is clear that, beyond simply reporting on the facts, communicators must work to find more effective ways of conveying some very difficult points — e.g., while structural racism is a familiar idea to insiders, there are reasons to believe that conveying a clear picture of it to broader audiences remains an important challenge. For a range of cognitive and cultural reasons, the focus easily remains on individual choices. Conveying the idea of “invisible” systemic forces that stack the odds against  black males is a challenge that cannot be overestimated.

Yet finding ways to offer audiences new mental pictures of the causality related to black male achievement is critically important, not just as a way of reassigning “blame,” but also as a way of transcending some of the most challenging dilemmas communicators face. For instance, a new causal picture can help communicators get past the troublesome question of whether to avoid discussion of black men’s choices, thereby inviting charges of idealizing them or setting the bar too low, or to invite charges of blaming the victim. A new understanding of big-picture causality could potentially put a more constructive light on seemingly self-destructive choices made by black males, e.g., the choice to join gangs because they seem to offer opportunities for social and economic advancement otherwise lacking in some communities. Making this big-picture case is far from easy, as communicators already know, but it may be essential.

Note that one promising candidate for a focus of discussion may be implicit bias itself — as identified in psychology experiments. As a focus of communications, these points illustrate several criteria that our own research suggests can be important for effective communication on a fraught topic: (A) steering clear of the type of moral censure that can alienate many audience members; (B) pointing to “objective” facts that are harder to dispute; (C) conveying a relatively novel and unfamiliar point (rather than rehashing familiar claims and accusations); and (D) offering the hope that there are concrete steps that can help. (For various reasons discussed in the social science literature, including the so-called “just-world” orientation, Americans tend to respond more favorably to messages that offer hope — see, for example, Feinberg & Willer,  2010.)

More generally, in fact, communicators can be confident that promoting stories about solutions and success stories — interventions or causal factors of any kind that have altered black male outcomes for the better — will help engage new audiences. Whether in fiction shows, news accounts, press releases, or informal anecdotes, communicators are sure to gain new kinds of attention by offering audiences fresh and hopeful takes on the topic.

Another potentially promising direction may be pointing out (and calling out) the manipulative uses   of race in the media and public discourse. Some of the social science evidence suggests that explicit inoculation against manipulators and manipulative messages can be very effective, and the strategy of opening people’s eyes to how they are being duped has been effective in other issues areas, such as cigarettes and smoking.

Finally, communicators should keep in mind that any of their efforts that can help promote greater contact between African-American males and others may be among the most effective steps they can take.

Download Full Report

Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA:  Addison-Wesley.

Ambady, N., Shih, M., Kim, A., & Pittinsky, T. L. (2004). Deflecting negative self-relevant stereotype activation: The effects of individuation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 401-408.

Amodio, D. M. (2009). Intergroup Anxiety Effects on the Control of Racial Stereotypes: A Psychoneuroendocrine Analysis. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45,  60-67.

Ansell, A. E. (1997). New Right, New Racism: Race and Reaction in the United States and Britain. London: Macmillan.

Aronson, J., & Steele, C. M. (2005). Stereotypes and the Fragility of Human Competence, Motivation and Self-Concept. In A. Elliot, & C. Dweck, Handbook of Competence and Motivation. Guilford, New York.

Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the Effects of Stereotype Threat on African American College Students by Shaping Theories of Intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 113-125.

Aronson, J., Lustina, M. J., Good, C., Keough, K., Steele, C. M., & Brown, J. (1999). When White Men Can’t Do Math: Necessary and Sufficient Factors in Stereotype Threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 29-46.

Aubrun, A., Brown, A., & Grady, J. (2007). External Factors vs. Right Choices: Findings from Cognitive Elicitations and Media Analysis on Health Disparities and Inequities in Louisville, KY. Louisville: Center for Health Equity.

Aubrun, A., Emanatian, M., & Grady, J. (2005). Six Harmful Patterns in Newspaper Representations of Race. Washington, DC: Frameworks Institute.

Avery, J. M., & Peffley, M. (2003). Race Matters: The Impact of News Coverage of Welfare Reform on Public Policy. In S. Schram, & R. C. Fording, Race and the Politics of Welfare Reform. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Aziz, N. (2002). Colorblind: White-washing America. The Public Eye, 16 (2), pp.   1-13.

Banks, J. A., & Grambs, J. D. (1972). Racial Prejudice and Black Self-Concept: Implications for Education and Social Science. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Banks, R. R., & Ford, R. T. (2009). (How) does Unconscious Bias Matter?: Law, Politics, and Racial Inequality. Emory Law Journal, 58 (5),  1053-1123.

Beaudoin, C. E., & Thorson, E. (2006). The Social Capital of Black and Whites: Differing Effects of the Mass Media in the United States. Human Communication Research, 32, 157-177.

Bobo, L. (2001). Racial attitudes and relations at the close of the twentieth century. In N. J. Smelser, W. J. Wilson, & F. Mitchell, Racial Trends and Their Consequences. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Bobo, L., & Kluegel, J. R. (1993). Opposition to Race-Targeting: Self-Interest, Stratification Ideology, or Racial Attitudes? American Sociological Review, 58 (4),   443-464.

Bogle, D. (2003). Toms, Coons, Mulattoes and Bucks (Vol. 4). New York, NY: Continuum International  Publishing.

Bolsen, T. (2011). The Construction of News: Energy Crises, Advocacy Messages, and Frames toward Conservation. International Journal of Press/Politics, 16 (2), 143-162.

Brooks, D., & Hebert, L. P. (2006). Gender, Race and Media Representation. In B. J. Dow, & J. T. Wood, The Sage Handbook of Gender and Communication. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Brown, M. (1999). Race, Money and the American Welfare State. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Brown, M., Carnoy, M., Currie, E., Duster, T., Oppenheimer, D. B., Shultz, M. M., et al. (2003). Whitewashing Race: The Myth of the Color-Blind Society. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.

Burgess, D., van Ryn, M., Dovidio, J., & Saha, S. (2007). Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22 (6), 882-887.

Burnham, L. (2002). Welfare Reform, Family Hardship, and Women of Color. In R. Albelda, & B. K., Losing Ground. Boston, MA: South End Press.

Burrell, T. (2010). Brainwashed: Challenging the Myth of Black Inferiority. New York, New York: Smiley Books.

Byrne, D. N. (2008). The Future of (the) ‘Race’: Identity, Discourse, and the Rise of Computer- Mediated Public Spheres. In A. Everett, Learning Race and Ethnicity: Youth and Digital Media (pp. 15-38). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Carragee, K. M., & Roefs, W. (2004). The Neglect of Power in Recent Framing Research. Journal of Communication, 54 (2), 214-233.

Center for Social Inclusion. (2005). Thinking Change: Race, Framing and the Public Conversation on Diversity. Columbus: Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race and Ethnicity.

Clawson, R., & Trice, R. (2000). Poverty as We Know It: Media Portrayals of the Poor. Public Opinion Quarterly, 64, 53, 56-57.

Clawson, R., Franciose, M., & Scheidt, A. (2007). The Racialized Portrayal of Poverty. Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association. Chicago.

Cutting, H., & Themba-Nixon, M. (2006). Talking the Walk: A Communications Guide for Racial Justice. Oakland, CA: AK Press.

Danaher, K., & Crandall, C. S. (2008). Stereotype threat in applied settings re-examined. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38, 1639-1655.

Devine, P. G., Plant, E. A., Amodio, D. M., Harmon-Jones, E., & Vance, S. L. (2002). The regulation of explicit and implicit race bias: The role of motivations to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 835-848.

Devine, P., & Sharp, L. (2009). Automaticity and Control in Sterotyping and Prejudice. In T. Nelson, Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination. New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Dines, G. (2003). King Kong and the White Woman: Hustler Magazine and the Demonization of Masculinity. In G. Dines, & J. M. Humez, Gender Race and Class in Media: A Text Reader (pp. 451- 461). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Diuguid, L., & Rivers, A. (2000). The Media and the Black Response. The Annals of The American Academy of Political and Social Science, 569 (1),  120-134.

Dixon, T. L., & Azocar, C. L. (2007). Priming Crime and Activating Blackness: Understanding the Psychological Impact of the Overrepresentation of Blacks as Lawbreakers on Television News. Journal of Communication, 57.

Dixon, T. L., & Linz, D. (2000). Race and the Misrepresentation of Victimization on Local Television News. Communication Research, 27 (5), 559-560.

Dong, Q., & Murrillo, A. P. (2007). The Impact of Television Viewing on Young Adults’ Stereotypes Towards Hispanic Americans. Human Communication, 10 (1), 33-44.

Dorfman, & Wallack. (2009). Moving from Them to Us: Challenges in Reframing Violence among Youth. Berkeley: Berkeley Media Studies Group.

Eastin, M. S., Appiah, O., & Cicchirillo, V. (2009). Identification and the influence of cultural stereotyping on post videogame play hostility. Human Communication Research, 35, 337-356.

Elder, L. (2008). Stupid Black Men: How to Play the Race Card — and Lose. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.

Entman, R. M. (2006). Young Men of Color in the Media: Images and Impacts. Washington, DC: Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies.

Entman, R. M., & Gross, K. A. (2008). Race to Judgement: Stereotyping Media and Criminal Defendants. Law and Contemporary Problems, 71 (93), 94-133.

Entman, R. M., & Rojecki, A. (2000). The Black Image in the White Mind: Media and Race in America. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Eschholz, S., Bufkin, J., & Long, J. (2002). Symbolic Reality Bites: Women and Racial/Ethnic Minorities in Modern Film. Sociological Spectrum, 22, 299-334.

Feinberg, M., & Willer, R. (2010). Apocalypse Soon? : Dire Messages Reduce Belief in Global Warming by Contradicting Just-World Beliefs. Psychological Science, 22 (1), 34-38.

Feldman, G. (2004). Ugly Roots: Race, Emotion, and the Rise of the Modern Republican Party in Alabama and the South. In G. Feldman, Before Brown: Civil Rights and White Backlash in the Modern South (pp. 268-309). Birmingham: University of Alabama Press.

Garcia, R., & White, A. (2006). Healthy Parks, Schools, and Communities: Mapping Green Access and Equity for the Los Angeles Region. Los Angeles: The City Project.

Gilens, M. (1996). ‘Race Coding’ and White Opposition to Welfare. American Political Science Review, 90 (3), 593-604.

Gilens, M. (1999). Why Americans Hate Welfare. Chicago: University of Chicago   Press.

Gilliam, F. (2008). Effects of Explicitness in the Framing of Race. The JEHT Foundation and the California Endowment. Washington, DC: The FrameWorks Institute.

Gilliam, F., & Manuel, T. (2009). The Illogic of Literalness: Narrative Lessons in the Presentation of Race Policies. Frameworks Institute.

Gillum, T. L. (2002). Exploring the link between stereotypic images and intimate partner violence in the African American community. Violence Against Women, 8, 64-86.

Goff, P. A., Steele, C. M., & Davies, P. G. (2008). The space between us: Stereotype threat and distance in interracial contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 91-107.

Greenwald, A. G., Oakes, M. A., & Hoffman, H. G. (2003). Targets of Discrimination: Effects of Race on Responses to Weapons Holders. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39 (4), 399-405.

Guerrero, E. (1993). Framing Blackness: The African American Image in Film. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

Guineer, L., & Torres, G. (2002). The Miner’s Canary: Enlisting Race, Resisting Power, Transforming Democracy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Hardisty, J. (1995). The Resurgent Right: Why Now? Public Eye, 9 (1).

Hawkings, R., & Pingree, S. (1990). Divergent Psychological Processes in Constructing Social Reality from Mass Media Content. In N. Signorielli, & M. Morgan, Cultivation Analysis: New Directions in Media Effects Research (pp. 35-50). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Henderson, D. A., & Tickamyer, A. R. (2009). The Intersection of Poverty Discourses: Race, Class, Culture, and Gender. In B. Thornton Dill, & R. E. Zambrana, Emerging Intersections. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Henderson, J. J., & Baldasty, G. J. (2003). Race, advertising and prime-time television. The Howard Journal of Communication, 14, 97-112.

Herman, E. S., & Chomsky, N. (1988). Manufacturing Consent. New York, New York: Pantheon.

hooks, b. (2004). We Real Cool: Black Men and Masculinity. New York, NY:Routledge.

Hutchings, V. L. (2009). Change or More of the Same? Evaluating Racial Attitudes in the Obama Era. Public Opinion Quarterly, 73 (5), 917-942.

Hutchinson, E. O. (1996). The Assassination of the Black Male Image. New York, New York: Touchstone.

Iyengar, S. (1991). Is Anyone Responsible? How Television Frames Political Issues. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Johns, M., Schmader, T., & Martens, A. (2005). Knowing is half the battle: Teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women’s math performance. Psychological Science, 16, 175-179.

Johnson, K. J., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2005). We All Look the Same to Me: Positive Emotions Eliminate the Own-race Bias in Face Recognition. Psychological Science, 16, 875-881.

Jones, D. M. (2009). Race, Sex and Suspicion: The Myth of the Black Male. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Kang, J. (2005). Trojan Horses of Race. Harvard Law Review, 118, 1489-1593.

Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J., Moll, J., Hermsen, S., & Russin, A. (2000). Just say no (to stereotyping): Effects of training in the negation of stereotypic associations on stereotype activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 871-888.

Kinnick, K., & White, C. (2001). Racial representation of computer users in prime-time advertising. Race, Gender & Class in the Media, 8, 96-114.

Lebrecht, S., Pierce, L. J., Tarr, M. J., & Tanaka, J. W. (2009). Perceptual Other-race Training Reduces Implicit Racial Bias. Public Library of Science, 1.

Lehrman, S. (2005). News in a New America. Miami: John S. and James L. Knight Foundation.

Livingston, R. W. (2002). The Role of Perceived Negativity in the Moderation of African Americans’ Implicit and Explicit Racial Attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38 (4), 405-413.

Losen, D. (2009). Case Study, Using Racial Data to Improve Education for Minority Children in the USA. State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples (Events of 2008). Global Report by UNICEF and Minority Rights Group International.

Loury, G. (2002). The Anatomy of Racial Inequality. Cambridge, Ma: Harvard University Press.

MacDonald, E. (2005). Masculinity and Race in Media: The Case of the Homicide Detective. In R. A. Lind, Race/Gender/Media: Considering Diversity across Audiences, Content and Producers (pp. 211- 227). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Martin, A. C. (2008). Television Media as a Potential Negative Factor in the Racial Identity Development of African American Youth. Academic Psychiatry, 32, 338-342.

Mastro, D., Behm-Morawitz, E., & Ortiz, M. (2007). The Cultivation of Social Perceptions of Latinos:  A Mental Models Approach. Media Psychology, 9, 347-365.

Meissner, C. A., & Brigham, J. C. (2001). Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces: A meta-analytic review. Psychology, Public Policy, & Law, 7, 3-35.

Mendoza, S. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Amodio, D. M. (2010). Reducing the expression of implicit stereotypes: Reflexive control through implementation intentions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 512-523.

Messineo, M. J. (2008). Does Advertising on Black Entertainment Television Portray More Positive Gender Representations Compared to Broadcast Networks? Sex Roles, 59, 752-764.

Monteith, M. J., Ashburn-Nardo, L., Voils, C. I., & Czopp, A. M. (2002). Putting the brakes on prejudice: On the development and operation of cues for control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1029-1050.

Moore, J. H. (Ed.). (2008). Encyclopedia of Race and Racism. New York, New York: Macmillan Reference USA.

Mou, Y., & Peng, W. (2008). Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games. In R. Ferdig, Handbook of Research on Effective Electronic Gaming in Education (pp. 922-937). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Mutua, A. D. (2006). Progressive Black Masculinities. New York, NY: Routledge.

Neal, M. (2006). The New Black Man. New York, NY: Taylor and Francis.

Neubeck, K., & Cazenave, N. (2001). Welfare Racism: Playing the Race Card Against America’s Poor. New York, New York: Routledge.

Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises. Review of General Psychology, 2 (2), 175-220.

O’Neil, M. (2009). Invisible Structures of Opportunity: How Media Depictions of Race Trivialize Issues of Diversity and Disparity. Washington, DC: Frameworks Institute.

Orbe, M. P. (1998). Constructions of Reality on MTV’s The Real World: An Analysis of the Restrictive Coding of Black Masculinity. Southern Communication Journal, 64, 32-47.

Peffley, M., Hurwitz, J., & Sniderman, P. M. (1997). Racial Stereotypes and Whites’ Political Views of Blacks in the Context of Welfare and Crime. American Journal of Political Science, 41, 30-60.

Pettigrew, T., & Tropp, L. (2006). A Meta-Analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90 (5), 751-783.

Phelps, E., O’Connor, K. J., Cunningham, W. A., Funayama, E. S., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., et al. (2000). Performance on Indirect Measures of Race Evaluation Predicts Amygdala Activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12 (5),  729-738.

Rachlinski, J. J., Johnson, S. L., Wistrich, A. J., & Guthrie, C. (2009). Does Unconscious Racial Bias Affect Trial Judges? Notre Dame Law Review, 84 (3).

Rahhal, T. A., Hasher, L., & Colcombe, S. J. (2001). Instructional manipulations and age differences in memory: Now you see them, now you don’t. Psychology and Aging, 16, 697-706.

Ramasubramanian, S. (2007). Media Based Strategies To Reduce Racial Stereotypes Activated by News Stories. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 84 (2), 249-264.

Ramasubramanian, S. (2011). The Impact of Stereotypical Versus Counterstereotypical Media Exemplars on Racial Attitudes, Causal Attributions, and Support for Affirmative Action. Communication Research, 38 (1).

Rich, M., Wood, E. R., Goodman, E., Emans, J., & DuRant, R. H. (1998). Aggressors or Victims: Gender and Race in Music Video Violence. Pediatrics, 101, 669-674.

Ryan, C. (2005). Successful Collaboration: Movement Building in the Media Arena. In D. Croteau, W. Hoynes, & R. C., Rhyming Hope and History: Activists, Academics, and Social Movement Scholarship. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008). An Integrated Process Model of Stereotype Threat Effects on Performance. Psychological Review, 115 (2), 336-356.

Schram, S. F. (2003). Race and Politics of Welfare Reform. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Shih, M., Bonam, C., Sanchez, D., & Peck, C. (2007). The social construction of race: Biracial identity and vulnerability to stereotypes. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, 125-133.

Smith, J. A. (1991). The Idea Brokers: Think Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite. New York, New York: The Free Press.

Smith–McLallen, A., Johnson, B. T., Dovidio, J. F., & Pearson, A. R. (2006). Black and White: The Role of Color Bias in Implicit Race Bias. Social Cognition, 24 (1), 46-73.

Steeh, C., & Krysan, M. (1996). Affirmative Action and the Public, 1970-1995. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 60, 128-158.

Stewart, B. D., & Payne, B. K. (2008). Bringing automatic stereotyping under control: Implementation intentions as efficient means of thought control. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 1332- 1345.

Tan, A. S., & Tan, G. (1979). Television use and self-esteem of blacks. Journal of Communication, 29, 129-135.

Tucker, L. (2007). Lockstep and Dance: Images of Black Men in Popular Culture. University Press of Mississippi.

Vay Ryn, M., & Burke, J. (2000). The effect of patient race and socio-economic status on physicians’ perceptions of patients. Social Science and Medicine, 50 (6), 813-828.

Wallack, L., Woodruff, K., Dorfman, L., & Diaz, I. (1999). Making Change: An Advocate’s Guide to Working  with the Media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Warner, R. (2006). Theoretical Framework for the Racism, Violence and Health Project. Halifax: Dalhousie University.

Wheeler, M. E., & Fiske, S. T. (2005). Controlling Racial Prejudice: Social-Cognitive Goals Affect Amygdala and Stereotype Activation. Psychological Science, 16 (1), 57.

Williams, D., Martins, N., Consalvo, M., & Ivory, J. D. (2009). The Virtual Census: Representations of Gender, Race and Age in Video Games. New Media Society, 11 (5), 815-834.

Williams, L. A. (1997). Decades of Distortion: The Right’s 30-year Assault on Welfare. Political Research Associates.

Winant, H. (1997). Behind Blue Eyes: Whiteness and Contemporary US Radical Politics. In M. Fine, Off White: Readings on Race, Power and Society (pp. 40-53). New York, NY: Routledge.

Download Full Report